The Importance of Vocabulary in Reading Comprehension
Introduction
Reading comprehension refers to gaining meaning from the given printed text through the interaction between readers' schema noesis retrieval and semantic cognition (Snow, 2002; Wigfield et al., 2016). Reading comprehension plays a vital function in two primary learning perspectives—knowledge acquisition and cognition aptitude cultivation (Perfetti and Stafura, 2014; Silva and Cain, 2015). The Simple View of Reading (SVR) posits that the fundamental knowledge for reading comprehension is vocabulary knowledge (Hoover and Gough, 1990; Cromley and Azevedo, 2007). Vocabulary cognition, regarded equally the minimum semantic unit of measurement in reading comprehension and regarded every bit a component of linguistic comprehension, refers to a semantic schema on passage mental image cognition and single word or character semantic significant identification (Nation, 2015; Braze et al., 2016). Large vocabulary size ordinarily represented well-structured semantic schema and better operation in word/grapheme significant identification. By studies have shown that Chinese vocabulary characters, as a representor of logographic scripts, differs from alphabetical scripts in spatial structure, grammatical noesis, and give-and-take function (Wang et al., 2003; Elleman et al., 2009; Tong et al., 2016; Choi et al., 2017). Logographical script (eastward.g., Chinese characters) has a homophonic richness (Kuo and Anderson, 2006), it is not ever reliable in character semantic pregnant identification via phonological knowledge as alphabetical words knowledge. The unique feature of Chinese characters may effect in a different contribution of the vocabulary knowledge to reading comprehension. From the perspective of verbal cognition evolution, vocabulary knowledge may contribute more than on reading comprehension activities at the higher education stage (Information Gap, Katz, 2001). In a similar vein, learning to read transited to reading to acquire volition be accomplished during primary school (Chall, 1987). Past studies showed that decoding contributed less variance and linguistic comprehension explained more than variance in higher grades and education stage (Mol and Bus, 2011; García and Cain, 2014). However, the effect of detailed factor (e.g., vocabulary knowledge) on reading comprehension was unknown. Whether the unique effect of Chinese character characteristics (e.k., structure) would be different from other language scripts is still unclear. Therefore, the electric current report aims to investigate the correlation betwixt vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension for Chinese readers and to further investigate the potential interaction effect between selected moderators and the association between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension.
Literature Review
Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading Comprehension
Vocabulary cognition in reading comprehension refers to a kind of knowledge that facilitates text comprehension by single, double, or more words/characters' semantic meaning identification, providing the possibility of necessary cognitive capacity for higher-level reading processes (Silva and Cain, 2015; LervAag et al., 2018). Extant literature has shown that vocabulary knowledge contributes to reading comprehension through semantic meaning identification and played a collaborator role with inference on judgement significant comprehension (Silva and Cain, 2015; LervAag et al., 2018; Lawrence et al., 2019). High quality of word semantic significant identification is beneficial for accurate private word meaning retrieval (Perfetti and Hart, 2002), which establishes discussion-and-word unit of measurement for sentence suggestion coherence (Cain et al., 2004; Braze et al., 2016). Past evidence has shown that vocabulary is significantly related to inference ability, listening comprehension, and reading comprehension (Lepola et al., 2012; Cain and Oakhill, 2014; Daugaard et al., 2017). Chinese is a kind of logographic script that is different from alphabetical script (e.thou., English language) in character construction (Ku and Anderson, 2003; Ramirez et al., 2010), grammatical knowledge (Bawa and Watson, 2017; Paradis and Jia, 2017), and function words sequence (Chen et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2017). Chinese characters are normally constructed past two components: the radical part usually represents the pronunciation of the grapheme; the other side of the component represents the function of the character. The structure usually could be divided into three categories: left-right (e.g., 棋), top-downwards (due east.g., 盛), and surround (east.1000., 困). In Chinese, the restricted semantic components (e.g., time, objects, and condition of the subjects) are usually inserted into the sentences rather than ready at the cease of the judgement or an contained component at the first part in the sentence. In particular, a single character could also be one sentence with a consummate meaning [e.g., 懂 (dǒng) represents the significant of someone agreement the whole meaning, skills, or the content that the other i mentioned]. The part and the meaning of the Chinese grapheme are determined by the semantic meaning situation. For example, "败 (bài)" could be a verb (i.due east., beat out) or an adjective (lose). In the judgement "A败B," the meaning of "败" could exist win or lose; if the sentence situation shows "A" has advantages, the meaning should be win; otherwise, the pregnant could be lost. Chinese characters take an omit function; the iv-character idiom could represent bully semantic meaning (e.g., "博大精深" represents the subject holds a great history/knowledge based on the current dialogue topic). Vocabulary noesis contributed to reading comprehension through word recognition straight (eastward.g., Mezynski, 1983; McBride-Chang et al., 2005a) and through reading fluency, decoding ability, and reading rate indirectly (Hilton, 2008; Spencer and Wagner, 2018). Past studies showed that vocabulary cognition contributed to reading comprehension process via word semantic meaning recall (semantic feature of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and pragmatic characteristics) speed and quality to attain a mental prototype from the given text (Perfetti, 1985; Logan and Kieffer, 2017; Lawrence et al., 2019). However, the inconsistent results of various correlations between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension have been found in Chinese students, from depression correlation (due east.g., Cheng et al., 2017) to loftier correlation (e.chiliad., Li et al., 2009). The unique effect of vocabulary cognition on reading comprehension remains unknown amid Chinese students; therefore, the role of the vocabulary cognition outcome on reading comprehension for Chinese participants requires further investigation.
Potential Moderators Option
The current study selects class group, didactics phase, language type, and sampling surface area as potential moderators. Reasons are listed below.
Grade Grouping
Reading stage statement (Chall, 1987) showed that grade group would exist a potential moderator on the association between vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension. The statement showed that readers started learning to read at lower grades of the primary school and transition to reading to larn at higher grades of primary schoolhouse. The higher reading stages matched college reading cognition ability, which may accept interacted with the association between vocabulary knowledge, and reading comprehension.
Education Stage
From the perspective of the task-oriented requirement, the Information Gap Theory (Katz, 2001) suggested that education stage—from principal school stage to Principal'south phase—would be a potential moderator on the clan between vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension. The higher educational activity stage provided the higher requirement of reading comprehension tasks in give-and-take cognition, passage construction cognition, and passage principal idea identification. The higher requirement of the reading comprehension task may result in a college association between vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension.
Empirically, class grouping has been shown to take a shut relationship with decoding ability, which serves equally a decision factor in vocabulary cognition (due east.chiliad., morphological cognition on radical component meaning identification). Past studies have already shown that the association betwixt decoding power and reading comprehension decreased by grade group (e.g., Mol and Bus, 2011; García and Cain, 2014). According to the reading stage argument and the information gap statement on reading, the current study divided grade group into ii groups. Regarding the reading stage argument, grades 1–vi of principal school were divided into lower grades of principal school, grades 1 and 2; middle grades of master school, grades 3 and 4; and college grades of main schoolhouse, grades 5 and 6. According to the data gap statement of reading, this study used education stage (PS: primary school, SS: secondary school, U.s.a.: undergraduate stage, MS: Master'southward phase) to represent dissimilar grade groups.
Language Type
Content-based Approaches (Cloud et al., 2000) suggested that exact noesis difficulty negatively correlated with the association betwixt vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension across dissimilar language scripts for readers. Past studies showed that the cognition difficulty was higher in 2nd-language (L2) than in outset-linguistic communication (L1) scripts. In addition, it was confirmed that morphological noesis fabricated a college contribution to logographic scripts noesis than phonological noesis (Yeung et al., 2011; Ruan et al., 2018). In dissimilarity, phonological knowledge fabricated a higher contribution to alphabetical scripts cognition than to logographical scripts (Seidenberg, 2011). The current study selected Chinese students every bit participants; thus, the cognition difficulty might be higher in alphabetical scripts comprehension than in logographical scripts comprehension. Therefore, the language type may collaborate with the clan between vocabulary noesis and reading comprehension.
Sampling Area
Cognition and Creativity Theory (Runco, 2007) suggested that verbal ability application in reading comprehension was affected past visual and auditory knowledge. Mainland People's republic of china, Hong Kong, and Taiwan have different writing systems and oral language systems in Chinese academic studies (e.g., Siok and Fletcher, 2001; McBride-Chang et al., 2005b). Regarding the writing system, mainland China uses a simplified script while both Hong Kong and Taiwan use traditional script. The differences mainly come from the number of strokes (the simplified version has ~22.5% fewer strokes than the traditional version has) and characters' structure complication (traditional script is more than complex). In improver, the pronunciation, grammatical knowledge, and sentence construction are very different between Mandarin (used in mainland Mainland china and Taiwan) and Cantonese (used in Hong Kong). The complexity of words impacts reading comprehension performance (Filippi et al., 2015; LervAag et al., 2018).
Relevant Meta-Analysis Studies Between Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension
In the last iii decades, a few studies investigated the effect of vocabulary knowledge on reading comprehension. These mainly adopt two mainstream approaches to synthesize the effect size betwixt vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. The majority of studies focus on vocabulary knowledge intervention effect on reading comprehension (eastward.g., Elleman et al., 2009; Marulis and Neuman, 2010; Dexter and Hughes, 2011), providing each effect size for specific intervention programs. The second group reflects the correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. All the same, by correlational meta-analytic studies have iii principal limitations. Kickoff, such studies (e.chiliad., Jeon and Yamashita, 2014) only included a small number of empirical studies, which may not represent the real correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. In addition, the study by Jeon and Yamashita (2014) did not provide whatever convincing association results, because the heterogeneity problem and the outliers were not removed. Second, past studies show limitations in participants' option. For case, Kudo et al. (2015) reported the correlation between vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension in readers with learning difficulties but. Finally, a few studies provided the correlation picture on logographical scripts' characters in which semantic meaning could be defined via morphemes.
The Current Report
The current study investigates the picture between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension for Chinese students from primary instruction phase to Master'southward education stage. Specifically, this study investigates the possible interaction effect explanations for the clan between reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge in Chinese readers from the reading stage, information gap, content-based approaches, and cognition and creativity theory perspectives. Moreover, the interaction effect of pedagogy stage, grade group, language type, and sampling area with the association between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension is also examined. Under the guidelines of PRISMA, the current study selects the most recent xx years of empirical studies as materials, investigating the correlation between vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension in Chinese students.
Methods
Literature Base of operations
This study selected potential materials from different databases. To avoid whatever misunderstanding of the scripts, the authors selected the materials written in Chinese and English language only. The Chinese materials were selected from the CNKI database, which included all possible academic empirical studies written in Chinese. Empirical studies written in English language were selected from PsycINFO, ERIC, and Pro-Quest Dissertations and Theses. Two groups of primal terms were used to search the empirical studies. Group 1 refers to vocabulary knowledge, including vocabulary*, vocabulary noesis*, latitude of vocabulary*, and depth of vocabulary*. The 2nd group refers to reading comprehension, including sentence comprehension*, paragraph comprehension*, passage comprehension*, text comprehension*, reading ability*, reading performance*, and comprehension*. All searched materials were published in the final xx years (1998–2018).
Inclusion Criteria
All selected empirical studies (articles, dissertations, and conference newspaper) have to meet all the following criteria: (a) sample size over 30; (b) empirical studies and non-opinion studies; (c) provided exact reading comprehension scores; (d) participants were Chinese students; (f) Chinese was L1 for participants; (g) reading comprehension measurement reported sentence comprehension scores or passage comprehension scores; and (h) provided plenty indicators for consequence size calculation. Regarding correlation indicator, this study included correlation (r) and percentage of variance (R two) in reading comprehension deemed for past vocabulary knowledge.
In addition, those studies with composite measurement of reading skills (e.g., vocabulary plus reading comprehension and reading plus listening comprehension) were removed in club to ensure that the consequence size but reflected the correlation between reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. Moreover, both vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension should be measured at the same fourth dimension from the aforementioned sample because the current report tries to report the concurrent correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. Detailed information of potential studies search was provided in Effigy one.
Figure 1. Flow chart for material option.
Coding Process
Two coders coded the following data independently: (a) year of publication, (b) first writer, (c) sampling area, (d) sample size, (due east) form group, (f) educational activity phase, (g) language blazon, and (h) upshot size of the correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. If the data were absent from the original materials, the coders emailed the authors for information. Ii coders removed those articles in which these 8 primal items were unclear.
If the selected article's participants were primary school students, to accost the hypothesis of the interaction effect of the reading stage on the correlation between vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension, the authors separated the studies as contained samples if participants came from different grade groups. To investigate the interaction effect of language type on the association between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension, the authors separated the studies as contained samples if one article provided the following two correlations—the first one was between L1 vocabulary knowledge and L1 reading comprehension, and the second one was between L2 vocabulary knowledge and L2 reading comprehension. This report removed those correlation upshot sizes where the vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension came from different linguistic communication scripts, specifically the effect size between L1 vocabulary noesis and L2 reading comprehension and the effect size between L2 vocabulary noesis and L1 reading comprehension. Otherwise, if one article provided more than than one available upshot size, they were subjected to robust variance estimation (Hedges et al., 2010) for outcome size interpretation, ensuring that each independent sample merely provided one effect size for further meta-analysis. The intercoder understanding for both written report characteristics and effect variables was 95% across meta-analyses, and all discrepancies between coders came from the sampling area. The authors solved this trouble by removing those manufactures in which the sampling area was mixed—for example, the participants came from both communist china and Hong Kong and the correlation effect size was not clear for either sampling expanse.
Meta-Analytic Procedures
This study followed standard analytic procedures as claimed in PRISMA (Moher et al., 2011). All correlation indicators were entered into Comprehensive Meta-analysis for Fisher's z adding. This study selected Fisher's z because z followed asymmetrical distribution (Borenstein et al., 2009). To interpret the effect size, the values of Fisher's z were 10, 31, and 55, to be interpreted as small issue size, moderate consequence size, and large effect size, respectively (Cohen, 1988).
To be bourgeois, this study practical indicators from the random-outcome model, which includes the value of Fisher's z, variance, Q-value, and 95% confidence interval (CI). Fisher's z could exist interpreted as significant when 95% CIs practise not cantankerous zero (Hedges and Pigott, 2004). Then, meta-regression was applied for moderator analysis when Q reached a level of significance. This report as well examined sensitivity assay through randomly removing one sample from the list. Furthermore, Orwin's safe number, funnel plot through trim-and-fill arroyo, p-value of Begg's rank correlation examination, and Egger's regression intercept exam were reported to address publication bias.
To compare the consequence sizes between each grouping, the authors calculated δ for further analysis: δ = Diff /SE, Diff = Fisher's z 1 – Fisher'southward z 2, SE = Sqrt (Variance z one + Variance z 2), if |δ| ≥ ane.96. They interpret the outcome to have pregnant difference (p < 0.05).
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Detailed information of selected studies were shown in Table 1. Three outliers from primary school grades' list were removed due to an effect size of over 3.v standard divergence (García and Cain, 2014): Cheng and Wu (2017) from the lower master grades' listing and Chen (2015) and Chen at al. (2018) from the higher primary grades' list. The remaining 81 studies included in the meta-analysis represented a total of ten,668 participants obtained from 89 independent samples. Of these, 29 samples (northward = 4,672) reported the correlation between vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension for main school students. In item, 17 samples (n = ii,400) reported the correlation in lower master grades, 6 samples (due north = 1,019) reported the correlation in centre primary grades, and 6 samples (n = 1,253) reported the correlation in higher primary grades. Furthermore, 21 samples (n = three,122) reported the correlation between L1 vocabulary knowledge and L1 reading comprehension, and 8 samples (northward = 1,550) reported the correlation betwixt L2 vocabulary noesis and L2 reading comprehension.
Table i. Descriptive information of the selected studies.
Eleven (11) samples (n = 850) reported the correlation event size in secondary school students. All 11 samples reported the correlation betwixt L2 vocabulary knowledge and L2 reading comprehension. Adjacent, 45 samples (n = iv,506) reported the correlation outcome size in undergraduate students. All 45 samples reported the correlation between L2 vocabulary knowledge and L2 reading comprehension. Four samples (n = 640) reported the correlation in Master's students. All four samples reported the correlation betwixt L2 vocabulary knowledge and L2 reading comprehension.
Eleven (eleven) samples (n = i,938) reported Hong Kong students' correlation between vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension. A farther 72 samples (n = 7,914) reported mainland China students' correlation between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. Four samples (north = 517) reported the correlation betwixt vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension for those Chinese students who lived in other countries. 5 samples (n = 776) reported Taiwan students' correlation between vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension.
Meta-Assay
Every bit shown in Table 2 the overall correlation outcome size betwixt vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension was nearly large (z = 0.54, p < 0.001). The Q-value was significant (Q = 204.61, p < 0.001). Moderator analysis showed that the education phase explained 66% (p < 0.001) of the variance, and the sampling surface area explained 10% (p < 0.01) of the variance. Linguistic communication type did not accept a meaning interaction effect with the correlation betwixt vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension for Chinese participants.
Table two. Meta-analysis.
To further address the hypothesis from the Information Gap statement and the Reading Phase statement, following the awarding of data-driven approach nether the guidance of PRISMA, the authors further examined the correlation betwixt vocabulary noesis and reading comprehension in each education stage through heterogeneity analysis. Regarding primary school, the upshot size was fifty (p < 0.001) and the Q-value was 34.84 (p > 0.10, I 2 = 19.64). The publication bias test showed that Orwin's fail-safe number was 259, the Tau value for Begg's rank correlation test was 03 (p > 0.10), and Egger's regression intercept was 49 (p > 0.10). The funnel plot showed that effect size had a symmetry distribution (Figure ii), indicating that the correlation effect size for primary school students did not take pregnant publication bias. Results suggested that reading phase argument did not have a significant interaction issue with the correlation between vocabulary noesis and reading comprehension in primary schoolhouse. Regarding sensitivity analysis, the authors randomly removed one report from the listing. The consequence was similar, indicating that the results had higher reliability.
Figure 2. Funnel plot of the correlation consequence size between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension for primary schoolhouse students.
Regarding secondary school, the event size was 74 (p < 0.001) and the Q-value was iv.xviii (p > 0.10, I 2 < 0.001). The publication bias exam showed that Orwin's neglect-condom number was 153, the Tau value for Begg's rank correlation test was 22 (p > 0.10), and Egger'south regression intercept was 71 (p > 0.10). The funnel plot showed that outcome size had a symmetric distribution (Figure 3), indicating that the correlation consequence size for secondary schoolhouse students did non have significant publication bias. Regarding sensitivity analysis, the authors randomly removed one report from the list. The issue was similar, indicating that the results had college reliability.
Effigy 3. Funnel plot of the correlation effect size between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension for secondary school students.
Regarding undergraduate students, the effect size was 55 (p < 0.001) and the Q-value was 39.97 (p > 0.10, I 2 < 0.001). The publication bias exam showed that Orwin's neglect-safe number was 447, the Tau value for Begg's rank correlation examination was 17 (p > 0.ten), and Egger'southward regression intercept was 76 (p > 0.10). The funnel plot showed that event size had a symmetric distribution (Figure 4), indicating that the correlation outcome size for undergraduate students did not have meaning publication bias. Regarding sensitivity analysis, the authors randomly removed 1 report from the list. The outcome was like, indicating that the results had higher reliability.
Figure 4. Funnel plot of the correlation effect size between vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension for undergraduate students.
Regarding Principal's students, the effect size was 28 (p < 0.001) and the Q-value was ane.77 (p > 0.10, I 2 < 0.001). The publication bias test showed that Orwin's fail-rubber number was 19, the Tau value for Begg's rank correlation test was 60 (p > 0.10), and Egger's regression intercept was 6.37 (p > 0.10). The funnel plot showed that consequence size had a symmetric distribution (Figure five), indicating that the correlation effect size for Principal's students did not have significant publication bias. Regarding sensitivity analysis, the authors randomly removed one written report from the list. The issue was like, indicating that the results had higher reliability.
Figure v. Funnel plot of the correlation effect size betwixt vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension for Principal students.
Result Size Comparison
The effect size of master school was significantly lower than the outcome size of secondary school (|δ| = v.68, p < 0.001), the event size between principal schoolhouse and undergraduate was not significant (|δ| = i.34, p > 0.10), and the effect size of primary school was significantly college than the issue size of Master'southward students (|δ| = 5.51, p < 0.001). The effect size of secondary school was significantly college than the outcome size of undergraduate students (|δ| = 5.08, p < 0.001), and the effect size of secondary school was significantly higher than the outcome size of Master's students (|δ| = 5.69, p < 0.001). The consequence size of undergraduate students was significantly college than the effect size of Main'south students (δ| = 6.36, p < 0.001).
Discussion
This study synthesized 89 independent samples to investigate the correlations between vocabulary and reading comprehension in Chinese readers from primary school stage to Main'south stage. The overall correlation effect size was well-nigh large. The issue is consistent with previous survey studies that have shown that vocabulary knowledge had cracking variance in explaining the mental paradigm construction process via verbal cognition and semantic identification (Cain et al., 2004; Quinn et al., 2015; Gottardo et al., 2018). For example, vocabulary knowledge provides different potential semantic meanings of the target word or characters to assist readers' cognition of the adjacent coherence between words and sentences (Prior et al., 2014; Perfetti, 2017).
The correlation consequence size was moderated significantly past pedagogy stage. Results showed that the interaction upshot of class group, language type, and sampling area was non significant, rejecting the possible interaction impact from the reading stage, content-based approach, and cognition and creativity statements via the link between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. The correlation picture was an inverted U-shape from primary school stage to Master'southward stage. The tendency of the correlation was consequent with those cross-sectional studies with multiple grade groups (eastward.g., Chik et al., 2012) and longitudinal studies for dissimilar grade group performance surveys (Zhang et al., 2012; Siu and Ho, 2015; Cheng et al., 2016). There are three possible explanations on the significant interaction result between education phase and the association of vocabulary cognition and reading comprehension. Firstly, vocabulary knowledge might accept an independent contribution on the reading comprehension. Previous studies argued that vocabulary knowledge contributed to reading comprehension directly due to the derived meaning of vocabulary on the mental representation construction (Ouellette and Beers, 2010; Tunmer and Chapman, 2012). Chinese readers tend to identify the semantic meaning of characters or words from morphological and orthographical coding than phonological coding (e.g., Dong et al., 2019); for instance, readers tend to place the function of the graphic symbol through the radical component of characters and then ensure the pronunciation from the rest of the components, which may not determine the identifying facial and deep mental lexical meaning from the given text. Text comprehension progress relies more on semantic pregnant identification on each graphic symbol rather than on accurate pronunciation of the character. Semantic meaning, especially the facial semantic meaning from the given text knowledge, determined the readers' mental image construction via the final global inference. Moreover, vocabulary knowledge directly impacted the process of target character or word decoding progress (Ouellette and Beers, 2010; Tunmer and Chapman, 2012), indicating that the vocabulary knowledge was an independent variable on reading comprehension cognition, which does not belong to decoding and linguistic comprehension (The Simple View of Reading: Hoover and Gough, 1990). Past studies confirmed that the association between decoding and comprehension decreased when the grade group increased (Mol and Bus, 2011; García and Cain, 2014); therefore, the proportion of linguistic comprehension contribution on reading comprehension should be increased. Notwithstanding, the current results partially match the development of linguistic comprehension, which might provide evidence for the contained effect of vocabulary noesis development on reading comprehension. The fact that Chinese characters could exist identified by the construction from students' schema could be an alternative reason. School curricular syllabus required students to enlarge vocabulary size from primary school to secondary school. Students learn new characters through retrieval decoding skills and schema knowledge and through recognizing familiar radical components and comparing the target character with previous acquired relevant characters' data; therefore, the increasing knowledge of vocabulary would have more effect on reading comprehension activities. Nevertheless, since the phase of college teaching, syllabus required less on students' vocabulary noesis evolution but required more than on students' grammatical and inference ability application; therefore, the speed and size of the vocabulary schema cognition construction evolution would be lower, resulting in less contribution on reading comprehension than primary and secondary didactics phase. Corresponding with the syllabus requirement, the interaction result between complicated reading task in college grade groups and the reading schema for semantic noesis retrieval would be the third reason. Vocabulary noesis contributed to comprehension progress via grapheme semantic meaning identification and specially worked on facial significant identification. From primary school to secondary school, the requirement of reading comprehension was an test of the reading power; the larger vocabulary knowledge base contributed to faster semantic knowledge retrieval (Wolf et al., 2000; Ecke, 2015). At the aforementioned time, the assessment of the reading comprehension chore was not complicated. After graduating from secondary school, the reading noesis schema assisted readers to imagine the mental representation from the given text. At the same time, the more complicated passage structure cognition process needed more reading noesis (e.g., reading strategy, college-order thinking) collaboration. When these were combined, the contribution proportion of the vocabulary knowledge decreased. For case, text reading comprehension not but needs give-and-take recognition but likewise needs a combination of strategies, inference ability, and other relevant factors (east.k., linguistic knowledge) to do text cognition, thereby leading to smaller correlation in higher-grade groups. An culling reason could be reading comprehension difficulties. Readers might experience bug on global or adjacent text coherence cognition even though each word or character's pregnant was well-identified (Oakan et al., 1971; Catts et al., 2016). The large consequence size between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension informed vocabulary knowledge preliminarily provided the facial significant on target graphic symbol/word semantic identification and adamant comprehension activity progress. At any education phase, the curricular design should pay more than attending to students' vocabulary schema development. Moreover, due to the complication comprehension activity requirement, schools should remind students to develop vocabulary knowledge with grammatical and inference ability coordinately on comprehension task functioning, enhancing mental paradigm construction via well-synthetic deep semantic pregnant.
Limitations and Implications
The current study has four main limitations. First, previous studies reported that vocabulary might have an contained contribution to reading comprehension directly rather through decoding and linguistic comprehension (Ouellette and Beers, 2010; Tunmer and Chapman, 2012); the electric current written report results did not fully support this statement through simple meta-analytic approach. For future studies, a network meta-belittling approach may be a reliable approach to investigate the effect. 2d, the current study only examined the interaction effect on the association between vocabulary noesis and reading comprehension from grade or teaching stage, language blazon, and sampling expanse; the other factors' result [eastward.g., text comprehension level (Sparks et al., 2008)] was non included. Third, it did not investigate the interaction effect within selected moderators. Finally, from secondary school stage to Master'due south stage, all selected studies reported Chinese students' correlation between L2 vocabulary knowledge and L2 reading comprehension only.
The results of the current written report indicated the correlation between reading comprehension and vocabulary for Chinese participants, and age or pedagogy phase should be considered every bit a fundamental variable to control due to the meaning interaction issue with the target correlation. 2d, for those intervention designs that aim to meliorate reading comprehension through a vocabulary intervention programme, the appropriate time for college intervention effect size should be during primary schoolhouse, secondary schoolhouse, and undergraduate stage. Finally, regarding teaching activities, because the contribution of vocabulary on reading comprehension decreased since secondary schoolhouse, teaching activities should pay more attention to other linguistic factors' (e.k., inference) design during the school reading program.
Decision
This study found the inverted U-shape correlation picture between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension in Chinese participants. Results showed that vocabulary knowledge might take an independent effect on reading comprehension in each educational activity phase, which rejected the possible interaction result of course group in principal school, sampling area, and language type in different script cognition. Results showed that the correlation event size decreased since secondary school teaching stage, the reason being the higher hard level of text comprehension, which suggested that other higher-lodge thinking factors (e.thou., inference) may contribute a higher proportion on text comprehension.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author Yi Tang.
Author Contributions
YD drafted the most part of the manuscript and did data assay. YT revised the manuscripts and did data analysis. BW-YC provided critical comments to the draft. WW and W-YD helped data collection and provided comments to the typhoon. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.
Funding
The work described in this paper was supported by a grant from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Authoritative Region, Mainland china (CityU 11619816).
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or fiscal relationships that could be construed as a potential disharmonize of interest.
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The Importance of Vocabulary in Reading Comprehension
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